Thursday, October 31, 2019

MGT599 - Strategic Management, Mod 4 Case Assignment Essay

MGT599 - Strategic Management, Mod 4 Case Assignment - Essay Example It should adopt such strategies which will help it in developing the business in accordance with the prevailing market conditions. The strategies will aid the company to retain more customers as well as provide improved quality services. Introduction Southwest Airlines is identified to be a carrier company in the United States of America which is known for its cheap fares. Headquarter of the airline company is learnt to be located in Dallas, Texas. It operates over 3,300 flights each day as well as engages over 37,000 employees in the company. It provides its services in almost 37 states. The company is famous for its cheap fares as well as quality services provided to the customers (Southwest Airlines, 2012). The company follows the strategy of offering efficient services to the customers at a cheap rate. It operates with a cost leadership strategy which enables the company to offer better services to its customers. Thesis Statement The purpose of this paper is to bring out the stra tegy adopted by the company for enhancing its profits as well as services. It will also help in comprehending the strategic choices that will further develop the performance of the company. Main Body The airline company practices the strategy of cost leadership which signifies that it provides quality carrier services at an economical rate. It aids the company in competing with its contenders in terms of low prices as well as the degree of quality of the provided services. The low or affordable fares facilitate the company to attain a competitive edge and maintain a dominant position in the industry in comparison to its competitors. This strategy also assists the company in earning more profits (BCIT School of Business faculty, n.d.). A SWOT analysis will be conducted to gain a comprehension regarding the effectiveness of cost leadership strategy with regard to the company. The SWOT analysis will aid in understanding the core competency of the strategy which has been primarily adopt ed for raising the degree of performance of the concerned company as well as for increasing its profits. Strengths: The airline company provides quality services at an affordable price which helps it to improve the performance as well as profits. This particular strategy makes it possible for the company to attain competitive advantage against its competitors. It is supposed to be quite a popular airline carrier in the relevant industry (Shahzad Trading & Consulting FZE, n.d.). Weaknesses: The company offers its services at reasonable prices which restrict it from developing innovative ideas with regard to improving its performance. In order to maintain low cost benefits, the company would require making investments on a continuous basis (Shahzad Trading & Consulting FZE, n.d.). Opportunities: Cost leadership acts as a vital opportunity for the company as it helps in earning increased profits and offer quality services. This strategy has aided the company in retaining increased cust omers as well as ensuring business growth (Shahzad Trading & Consulting FZE, n.d.). Threats: The cost leadership strategy adopted by the company may pose a threat by reducing the competitiveness of the company in comparison to the brand loyalty and recognition of its competitors. The company is also likely to face greater degree of threats from other airline companies which are also known

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

The Khmer Rouge Tribunal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Khmer Rouge Tribunal - Essay Example In the trial, only four cases were planned to be carried out. The first case was against Kaing Guek Eav. Eav was the chief of the S-21 prison and was sentenced for more than 15,000 murders and crime against humanity. Eav was sentenced to a life sentence in prison. The rest of the three cases did not yield the same results. In Case two, only two people, Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan were tried. One of the defendants, Ieng Sary, the foreign minister of Khmer Rouge died while his wife, Ieng Thirit was declared mentally unstable. The other two cases were never brought to trial. In this case, even the defenders’ names were not officially released. There were many others who were also not brought to trial. The government, in this case, was to blame as it forestalled on getting the perpetrators convicted. One reason behind this is that the present government is formed of many individuals who themselves participated in the incident. These people fear their own indictment and therefore t ry their best to clog the trial. In my opinion, these trials could have served as an important lesson in future against war crimes, genocides, and crime against humanity. The UN could have set a good example here. However, the tribunal did not have the desired result. It failed to try most of the criminals involved. Only Kaing Guek Eav, the chief officer of the S-21 prison was truly tried in the tribunal. The others found excuses for the trial. These people had power over the government to prevent them from standing trial.

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Dirt bikes usa

Dirt bikes usa Introduction The small company Dirt Bikes USA based out of Colorado is planning to look for more ways to grow in the economy of the motorcycle industry. They are skeptical and worried about expenses and how they are going to obtain information to provide a solution efficiently. Dirt Bikes USA will go through a transformation on running their business more efficiently. With my evaluations and help I will decide on what kind of internet tools and technology that will be most effective for the organization and its employees. I will be discussing intranet systems and two other tools for the internet that can be provided for the organization. I also intend on discussing the benefits in using wireless technology and the kind of impacts it will have on the organization. The tools that will be utilized will have benefits for the organization as well. The cost efficiency of wireless networks versus the cost of wired networks will also be discussed to give the organization an option of using a more cost ef fective system. This will reveal the pros of wireless networks and the cons of wired networks. Recommendations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I recently have just evaluated the organization of Dirt Bikes USA and have come up with recommendations on solving problems. While Dirt Bikes USA already offers their employees internet with desktop computers it would be helpful to establish a private network through using the organizations existing network infrastructure combined with connectivity standards of the internet and software made for the World Wide Web (WWW). Laudon and Laudon (2009), states that intranets are private networks created by the use of internet networking standards and web technology. With the use of intranets it is secure and private and has a firewall for protection, which helps prevent unauthorized users from accessing the network. WWW and intranet software technology are similar to each other. Intranet Benefits   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While having access to information with the touch of a button can be very important in the marketing and sales department. There are many benefits received by the marketing and sales department using an intranet. These benefits are having access to the following: researching of competitors, information of products, reports on sales, and marketing analysis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The human resource department can benefit extremely from the use of intranet because they could cutback on the usage of paper. The department could start uploading all of the company applications, company handbooks, company benefit package, and much more that will lead to saving the money normally spent on large amounts of paper.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The manufacturing and production department of the company will benefit from the use of intranet by keeping track of the schedules of production while helping maintain and coordinate production. They can keep track of all their inventory of parts in and out of stock through the intranet. If the organization were to upgrade the intranet to an extranet suppliers would know when parts are needed for the company and customers could place their orders to the suppliers if needed. Helpful Tools   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout my investigation I found that as a minimum there are two other tools for the internet that will be useful for the employees at Dirt Bikes. The first internet tool is a Voice over IP (VOIP) phone system. According to Laudon and Laudon (2009), with the use of a (VOIP) phone system it could help lower the companys cost of communications by 20 to 30 percent. A VOIP phone system is a popular platform for corporate networking and voice transmission. I would suggest having more than one telecommunications and computer service infrastructure to save on long distance phone calls and even get rid of private lines, but having one of each of the infrastructures is needed to offer tremendous savings for Dirt Bikes organization in communications.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another tool for the organization would be the Apple iPad. With the iPad the organization can create formatted documents, spreadsheets with charts and formulas. The iPad also connects over Wi-Fi connection and 3G services so you can email photos to your clients and find out on the internet recent news on the competitors. Its a great tool to have around the shop instead of going back to your office to type an email you can type an email write in the power of your hands. Wireless Access   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe that it is important for Dirt Bikes USA to install wireless networks, which would allow wireless internet access to the employees and also provide the company with the capabilities of having voice data communications. By having Dirt Bikes USA install wireless internet it will lead the organization in profit increase while also saving employees time. Besides voice communications, technology has grown where cell phones are now capable of sending information through instant messaging and e-mails. Cell phones are also now capable of searching or researching information on the WWW. The use of cell phones could help the outsiders of the organization with access to information from just about anywhere.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With the use of Bluetooth in the organization is another way of using wireless networks. A Bluetooth is a wireless device that allows wireless phones, printers, and computers to communicate with each other with the least amount of power needed to function. Having lower power to function would make a Bluetooth best used with handheld computers, personal data assistants, and cell phones. Wired Networks versus Wireless Networks   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe for Dirt Bikes USA wireless networks are they way to go and they way of the future because an employee can have access to the internet from anywhere in the building, while wired networks limits you to a specific docking station or office. The only benefit of a wired network is that they work faster with larger files to upload and can tend to be more reliable than wireless networks. Wireless networks sometimes have problems with signal strength while wired networks do not unless a wire happens to become loosened. With the use of wireless networks it would be a fraction of the cost to have installed, compared to the wired networks because of all of the wires need to be ran throughout the building. The bottom line is that the use of a wireless network would be more cost effective for the organization. Conclusion Throughout my investigation I have determined and recommended many solutions to Dirt Bikes USA would benefit from. Using intranet systems in your organization would benefit the following departments: Manufacturing and production, human resources, and sales and marketing. In my determination I have also presented two more internet tools that if used would be valuable to the organization. The two internet tools that were presented are VPN and the Apple iPad. With the use of these tools it will be cost effective for the organization. I have also brought attention to wireless networks technology and the influence it will have on the organization. I compared the cost effective advantages of the use of wireless networks compared to wired networks to be considered by management. My analysis will help in saving the organization a lot of money, which in return will create higher profits for Dirt Bikes USA. References Laudon, Kenneth C., Lauden, Jane P. (2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.). Essentials of Management Information Systems (8th ed).,: Prentice Hall.

Friday, October 25, 2019

Jacksonian Era Essay examples -- papers President Andrew Jackson Age o

The Jacksonian Era (1824-1848) Although the â€Å"Age of Jackson† wasn’t a time era, which brought forth a great political, social, or economic freedom and equality to the U.S., it did in fact put our country through a metamorphosis in our political lives of the nation. The start of a new presidency (Jackson’s presidency) was accompanied by huge numbers of Hickoryites (Jacksonian supporters) and official hopefuls. Many of these hopefuls were granted their desire of holding office, which is one of the changes brought into Washington by Andrew Jackson. The major accomplishments of Jackson during his presidency pertain to his rural upbringing and democratic beliefs. To name a couple of Jackson’s memorable accomplishments and decisions not only politically, but economically were his nationalization of the spoils system, the Tariff of Abominations, his presidency in general, the Indian Policy, and his democratic views and ways of governing the nation. Prior to the presidency of Andrew Jackson, the system of appointing officials was under the â€Å"ideal of holding office during good behavior†, which led to the holding of positions by aged and incapable politicians who were not properly qualified for the tasks and jobs needed to be carried out. On the other hand, Jackson had appointed officials from all walks of life to promote the equality principles of democracy. Jackson also advocated â€Å"rotation in office†, which meant allow as many people serve in office for the shortest possible t...

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Accounting as a discipline has no theory Essay

Accounting is concerned with the collection, analysis and communication of economic information, which can be used to make decisions and plans about business by various users. The Committee On Terminology of the American Institute of Certified Pubic Accountants defined accounting as follows: â€Å"Accounting is the art of recording, classifying, and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in past at least, of a financial character and interpreting the results thereof†. (Ahmeo Riahi-Belkaou, page 32) Accounting is said to be a language used to communicate information to people. Accounting is also an intellectual discipline and a profession. Moreover, accounting is socially constructed and practiced by people for people, which influence workings and relationships in society. See more: The stages of consumer buying decision process essay The history of accounting stretches back to when the first ancient accounting system began, which was originally based on measurement and recording activities, and then the significant emergence of double-entry bookkeeping around the 15th century, as a basis for further accounting development that consequently resulted in modern Ango-American accounting in the 20th century. Whereas accounting was mainly an â€Å"internal matter† where the proprietors were close to the business, the growth of companies led to the requirement of stewardship accounting. As a result of further industrial development, changing social environment and establishment of professional accounting bodies, the accounting theory should systematically develop in accordance with importance of accounting in modern society. In recent years, more and more theorists start to assess the nature of accounting theory as well as argue whether there is an accounting theory or not. In this essay, I am going to exam the definition of accounting theory and provide evidence to ascertain the existence of a complete accounting theory. A theory is defined as â€Å"a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.†(Kerlinger, 1964, page 11) According to this definition, the statement â€Å"accounting as a discipline has no theory† implies  that as a subject, accounting has no a coherent set of concepts and definitions to explain and predict the phenomena. Obviously, the subject of accounting broadly covers all the phenomena in the scope of accounting. In this sense, the accounting theory refers to a general complete accounting theory which is a coherent set of principles and concepts to explain and predict all the phenomena. Before examine the nature of accounting theory, I need to know where the theory come from. â€Å"A fundamental requirement of a theory structure is that it must come to terms with the conditions of knowledge†. (Mathews & Perera, 1996,page 52) Simply, the theory is from knowledge, the big question,† how do we know what we know?† such as, the principles of logic. Correspondingly, one of main characteristics of a theory is a body of knowledge. The study of knowledge is the domain of epistemology, which is concerned with the nature and derivation of knowledge, the scope of knowledge and the reliability of claims to knowledge. Accounting is social constructed and practiced by people and people in terms of its roles. Consequently, Knowledge comes from people. In accounting, we want to generate knowledge and theories of accounting help us to understand accounting better. But there was a big problem arose in accounting in relate to the lack of a knowledge base. In order to solve this problem, SSAP 2 as a first step to provide a knowledge base for accounting was introduced in1971, which defines accounting bases, accounting policies and fundamental accounting concepts such as, going concern, prudence. Afterwards, more accounting standards were developed. Particularly, corporate report was introduced in 1975 which identified a number of user groups. But different users normally require different information. The conflicts of interests of information and the inconsistent of accounting standards resulted in the development of a conceptual framework. Some people argue that a comprehensive accounting theory has not existed at the present time. First of all, I will illustrate a conceptual framework to certify this argument according to the following statement: â€Å"In recent years much effort has been directed towards developing a general theory for the guidance of practice. Such a general theory has come to be known as a conceptual framework† (Underdown & Taylor, 1985, page 1) A conceptual framework that attempts to offer the theories and explanations was significantly produced and developed in order to construct a single coherent set of accounting principles and concepts which could explain accounting practice. FASB defined a conceptual framework as â€Å"a coherent system of interrelated objectives and fundamentals that can lead to consistent standards and that prescribes the nature, function and limits of financial accounting and financial statements.† (FASB, 1976, page2)A conceptual framework is tend to provide a more rigorous way of setting standards, eliminate the inconsistence between statutory and professional provisions and provide a frame of reference for accountants to address specific issues in the absence of specific standards, for example. An ASB statement of principles issued the qualitative characteristics of financial information. Specifically, comparability assists the development of a conceptual framework which tries to restrict the alternatives available to reporting bodies. â€Å"But the alternatives may not be absolutely reduced unless a conceptual framework produces the accounting standards on a completely coherent basis†. (Mathews & Perera,, 1996, page 109)However, the limitation of a conceptual framework includes the time and cost of preparation. Clearly, it is time consuming and expensive to operate. Particularly, some countries with limited economies cannot afford it. Furthermore, a conceptual framework provides too much guidance to accounting and encourages rigidity so that new ideas cannot be easily introduced. If the conceptual framework is poorly designed, it may only benefit some of user groups. For example, the Trueblood and SFAC 1 Reports give inadequate recognition to the needs of user groups other than investors and creditors. In addition, the conflict of principles still exists in the conceptual framework. The illustrative principles are relevance and reliability in the Statements of Principles. Relevance was preferred at the beginning as opposed to prevalence of reliability later. Therefore, a uniform conceptual framework may be difficult to achieve on the basis of inconsistent developments so leading to the impossibility of a general coherent accounting theory. On the other hand, Hendriken and Van Breda argue that an general accounting  theory as to a coherent set of principles is possible at present. They define accounting theory as † a coherent set of hypothetical, conceptual, and pragmatic principles forming a general frame of reference for inquiring into the nature of accounting.† (Hendriksen, E.S., 1977, page 1) The main objective of accounting theory is to provide a coherent set of logically derived principles that serve as a frame of reference for evaluating and developing accounting practice. I strongly do not agree with this statement, because there are some evidences could prove that there is no such an accounting theory involving a coherent set of principles and concepts. First of all, the earlier given example, conceptual framework, proved that it is difficult to achieve it on the completely coherent basis at present. For example, economic ratio analysis predicts the future information are made base on past information. SSAP2 introduced the principles of accrual and prudence which conflict with each other. Specifically, the accruals concept may suggest research and development be carried forward but the prudent concept may require the expenditure to written off in the present period. Moreover, true and fair view hasn’t been defined, but accountants are required to produce the accounts with true and fair view which depends on their constructed reality, so it is problematical that it might be fair to you, but not fair to somebody else. Furthermore, Image that shaped accounting theory tries to offer suggestions as to what accounting is all about or should be about. In Davis, Menon &Morgan’s article, four different images were created to influence the accounting theory in the various contexts in response to changing social environment. Specifically, accounting was assumed to be objective, as suggested by the image of historical record. But in recent years, new images have been created for accounting theory, which are current economic reality, the information system and commodity. Accountants now believe that accounting is subjective. Hence, the subject and object conflict with each other. We also have to see in what context each image is presented other than see it on its own. For example, the public commodity image has emerged in the context of a regulated environment. Therefore, no one image can fully  capture the essential aspects due to subjectivity and new images are being created to add new dimensions to future accounting theories. Moreover, other images which Solomon and Tinker debate about were created for domination of theory and practice of accounting. Solomon, a traditionalist, advocates neutrality or objective as opposed to the view of Tony tinker, a radical thinker. In addition, image that influences accounting theory could be partial or one-side results from view of reality can be produced partially and rather one-sidedly. In other words, accounting theorists created the various images by justifying their views of reality based on observation of social phenomena. Accounting as a discipline has no a complete theory due to the lack of a coherent set of principles and concepts in the scope of accounting and the changing social environment. According to American Accounting Association’s Committee on concepts and standards, they concluded that no single governing theory of financial accounting is rich enough to encompass the full range of user-environment specifications effectively, hence, there exists in the financial accounting literature not a theory of financial accounting but a collection of theories which can be arrayed over the differences in user-environment specifications. (American Accounting Association, 1977, page 1-2) It is indicated that no one single accounting theory applies to all the user-environments but a collection of theories could. For example, different users need different information. Investors need profit information and creditors are satisfied with cash flow information. AAA’s conclusion proved again that there is no a complete general accounting theory. In fact, at present no single accounting theory can affect all the user-environments because different users demand different information. We also live in a complex and changing society so that accounting theory only can achieve its compliant objective in one particular time, such as, image. No one accounting theory can also explain and predict all the phenomena. True and fair view is still a myth, how can accountants practice with such a view? A conceptual framework is still developing for trying to achieve a complete general accounting theory. On balance, I agree with this statement â€Å"accounting as a discipline has no theory†. I am of the opinion that in the subject of accounting, there is no a general complete accounting theory which is a coherent set of principles and concepts to explain and predict all the phenomena. I have proved with some examples that some of principles and concepts are inconsistent, such as, relevance and reliability, and also it is noticeable that accounting theory is partial and one-side, such as, image, because images that shaped accounting theory were captured through theorists’ different view which could be partial. Changing social environments also influence images. Clearly, each image only emerges in a particular context and period, as suggested by Davids. In addition, the incomplete of a conceptual framework which tries to construct a coherent set of principles to explain the practice proved the absence of a general accounting theory. The entire poof strongly against the Hendriken and Van Breda’s opinion which a general accounting theory have emerged. However, a conceptual framework is still improving so I personally believe that a complete general accounting theory could be achieved in the future in accordance with the complete of a conceptual framework due to the development of accounting in response with the development of modern society. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmed Riahi-Belkaoui(2000) â€Å"Accounting Theory†, 4th Edition, Thomson Learning. Mathews & Perera (1996) â€Å"Accounting theory & development†, 3rd Edition, Nelson. Underdown & Taylor (1985) â€Å"Accounting Theory & Policy Making†, Heinemann.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Activity Planning, Level 3 Child Care

Activity Planning Sheet – – Name of the activity: Circle/story time. – The number of children involved: 7-8 children. – The age of the children that are taking part: 4-5 years. Area of Learning – This activity will make the children use their imagination, also this activity will get the children to concentrate as they will be thinking about a story to come up with. It will also help the children boost their confidence and their social skills.The early years foundation satge says that you should provide the children with activities that involve turn-taking and sharing in small groups. It also says that the aldut should explain to the children why it is important to pay attention when others are speaking. I think this is great for a circle time activity. Specific Learning Objectives – This activity is good for boosting the children's confidence in themselves and interacting with other children.The early years foundation stage say that adults sh ould provide regular opportunities for children to talk to a small group about something they are interested in or have done, i thought this would be a good idea as the children can put in their own experiences into the story they are making up. This will also encourage the children to listen to others. The main objective of this activity is to get the children to use their imagination, as they are very imaginative. Resources and Equipment –During my activity I'm going to use a small teddy bear for them to pass around the circle when the children are making up their own story, I think this is a good idea as the children will know that they can only talk when they are holding the bear which well help them to share things with other children. This will also help their concentration. While doing this activity I'm going to write down the story that they have made up so they can look back on it or show their parents. Special Considerations –When doing this activity I may co me across a child that is to shy to talk and that doesn't want to take part in the activity. Bringing in a small teddy bear that the children can hold when it's their turn will comfort them and it may even encourage them to take part in the activity. There might be a child in the group that only speak basic English, I'll need to take the child's feelings in to consideration and make sure during the activity I try and get the child involved as much as i can and use signs and facial expressions to help them understand what the story is about.I need to make sure that no one feels left out and that they all have fun. Health and safety – While doing the circle time activity with them i need to make sure that all the children aren't sitting close together in the circle as children get very excited when doing an activity that is fun, we need to prevent any accidents that may happen like bumping in to each other. What is the adult's role in this activity? -Make sure all the children are behaving well and being sensible. Observe the children and learn from the experience. -make sure they are all using appropriate language. -They're all learning at the best of their ability. -Give the children help with their language if they need it. -Be in charge of the group I'm working with and make sure that they are all taking part in the activity. -Give encouragement to all the children especially the children who don't want to take part. -Make sure you follow the activity plan and the schools policies. Make sure all the children have fun!

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

The Meaning and Use of the Italian Word Salute

The Meaning and Use of the Italian Word Salute When was the last time you heard the word â€Å"salute† in Italian? Did you sneeze in public? Were you talking  about being sick? Or were you raising glasses of wine with friends while out at dinner? As you can see, the word â€Å"salute† has a variety of meanings in Italian and isn’t just limited to talking about your health, although thats an important use of it. Here are the ways that you can translate it into English: HealthWell-beingBless you!Cheers! 1: Health/Well Being The word salute is most commonly used to talk about health in terms of things that are good or bad for it, like in the examples below with smoking and vegetables.   Italian: Il fumo fa male alla salute.English translation: Smoking is bad for your health.Italian: Sono di/in buona salute.English translation: I’m in good health. TIP: Notice how you can use the preposition di or in in the example above. Prepositions are diverse, so you can often use two to mean the same thing. Read more about how to use di and read more about how to use in.   Italian: Mangiare le verdure fa bene alla salute.English translation: Eating vegetables is good for your health. Popular Proverbs There are many popular proverbs that use the word salute. Use  these in everyday conversation, and youll most certainly impress an Italian. Buona salute à ¨ la vera ricchezza. - Good health is true wealth.Chi à ¨ in buona salute à ¨ ricco senza saperlo. -  Those in good health are rich without knowing it.  Chi à ¨ sano à ¨ pià ¹ di un sultano - Who is healthy is more than a sultan.Salute e vecchiezza creano bellezza. - Health and age create beauty.Chi vuole conservare la salute per la vecchiaia, non la sciupi in gioventà ¹. - Those who want to save health for their old age don’t waste it in youth. Be careful not to get the word salute confused with the verb salutare, which means to greet or to say hello to. You can learn how to conjugate that verb here. Meaning 2: Bless You! Person 1: Ahhhh-choo! Person 2: Salute! - Bless you!Person 1: Grazie! - Thanks! Meaning 3: Cheers! Person 1: Facciamo un brindisi! - Let’s do a toast!Person 2: Alla nostra salute e alla nostra amicizia! - To our health and to our friendship!Everyone: Salute! - Cheers! Fun Fact: The word â€Å"salute â€Å" is used for cheers and comes from the ancient Latin language. In fact, the original word used was â€Å"prosit†, which means â€Å"sia utile†, â€Å"sia a favore†, or â€Å"faccia bene† meaning, may it be useful, in favor of†¦, be good for, respectively. Over time the latin â€Å"sia utile† slowly became...â€Å"salute†!

Monday, October 21, 2019

Take An Example

Take An Example Take An Example Take An Example By Maeve Maddox The following comment got me thinking about the ways example is used: I hope we all can take an example from Shakespeare, and dare to break the structured guidelines. Since the writer was talking about Shakespeare the writer and not â€Å"Shakespeare† the works, a more accurate wording would have been: I hope we all can take Shakespeare as an example, and dare to break the structured guidelines. Alternately, the writer could have written: I hope we all can take Shakespeare as our example, and dare to break the structured guidelines. Here are some expressions that use example. for example: I like fruit, for example, strawberries, kiwi, and blueberries. by way of example: Let’s take the works of George Eliot by way of example. to make an example {of a person) : The captain made an example of the thief by ordering a punishment of ten lashes. to set an example: People in positions of governmental power ought to set an example for honesty. to take example: Take example from the life of Samuel Johnson and be kind to the helpless. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Comparative Forms of AdjectivesThe Parts of a WordThe Difference Between e.g. and i.e.?

Sunday, October 20, 2019

5 Funny Figures of Speech

5 Funny Figures of Speech 5 Funny Figures of Speech 5 Funny Figures of Speech By Mark Nichol Wordplay is a fertile field for study in English. Although the following forms of humor should be used sparingly if at all, writers should be familiar with them and their possibilities. 1. Malapropism A malapropism, the substitution of a word with a similar-sounding but incongruous word, may be uttered accidentally or, for humorous effect, may be deliberate. The name derives from that of Mrs. Malaprop, a character in an eighteenth-century play who often uttered such misstatements; one of her comments, for example, is â€Å"she’s as headstrong as an allegory,† when she meant to say â€Å"alligator.† (The word ultimately derives from the French phrase mal propos, meaning â€Å"poorly placed.†) Numerous characters are assigned this amusing attribute; the Shakespearean character Dogberry’s name inspired an alternate label. 2. Spoonerism Spoonerisms are similar to malapropisms; the distinction is that a spoonerism is a case of metathesis, in which parts of two words are exchanged, rather than one word substituted for another. This figure of speech was named after a nineteenth-century Oxford academician who appears to have been credited with various misstatements he did not make; one of the many apocryphal examples is â€Å"a well-boiled icicle† (in lieu of â€Å"a well-oiled bicycle†). 3. Paraprosdokian The word for this type of wordplay, from Greek (meaning â€Å"against expectation†) but coined only a few decades ago, refers to a sentence with a humorously abrupt shift in intent, such as â€Å"I don’t belong to an organized political party I’m a Democrat,† from twentieth-century American humorist Will Rogers, or Winston’s Churchill’s summation of a colleague, â€Å"A modest man, who has much to be modest about.† 4. Tom Swifty This name for an adverb, used in an attribution for dialogue, that punningly applies to the words spoken (for example, â€Å"‘We just struck oil!’ Tom gushed†) was inspired by the writing style in a series of children’s novels featuring the character Tom Swift, written continuously since the early twentieth century. Although no such puns appear in these stories, such examples are suggestive of the overwrought adverbs that are a distinctive feature. (Originally, such a pun was called a Tom Swiftly.) 5. Wellerism A Wellerism, named after a Dickensian character, is a statement that includes a humorous contradiction or a quirky lapse in logic, such as â€Å"‘So I see,’ said the blind carpenter as he picked up his hammer and saw,† or a prosaic similar construction whose humor derives from a pun, as in â€Å"‘We’ll have to rehearse that,’ said the undertaker as the coffin fell out of the car† (which plays on the prefix re- in association with the noun hearse). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Using "a" and "an" Before WordsWhen to Form a Plural with an ApostropheAdverbs and Hyphens

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Chemistry of Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chemistry of Depression - Essay Example Depression is mainly seen among females even though it is common among males also. Medical science was confused about this discrepancy in the occurrence of depression among males and females. However, recent studies have shown the reasons. â€Å"Scientists from the Karolinska Institutet, Sweden, showed that the brain's serotonin systems in males and females are different. They think they might have found one of the reasons why more women are affected with depression and chronic anxiety than me† (What Is Serotonin? What Does Serotonin Do?).Apart from Serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, melatonin, insulin and prostaglandins are some other chemicals which affect mood and emotions. Dopamine is also an aromatic compound in organic chemistry. It is a kind of neurotransmitter which controls the movement of emotional responses. Dopamine deficiency can cause not only depression, but also other disorders such as schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease etc. â€Å"Pharmacological trea tments support the idea that an overactive dopamine system may result in schizophrenia: Medications that block dopamine receptors, specifically D2 receptors, reduce schizophrenia symptoms. The brain regions known as the thalamus and the striatum are affected by dopaminergic activity† (Gromisch).The neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) and the dopaminergic neurones play an important role in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease (PD). A decrease in DA in the substantia nigra of the brain has been implicated as the cause of PD.

Friday, October 18, 2019

Law 1183 for Washington Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Law 1183 for Washington - Essay Example â€Å"The main issue however concerns the taxation and distribution of liquor in Washington† (Smith, 2010). There are proponents who argue that privatizing the liquor sales and distribution and availing the liquor on groceries would greatly increase the availability of the liquor sales, which will be another important part of the income to the city authority or the state government. The opponents of this initiative on the other hand advocate for state control in obtaining revenue as well as streamlining the drinking patterns within the community. Initiative 1183 is a measure that is aimed at directing the liquor board to close down all the state owned liquor stores, terminate the contracts offered by the state to private stores selling liquor, and allow the state to issue private licenses that would allow the liquor to be sold, imported and distributed by private parties in groceries and other easy access points (Mercier, 2010). This initiative is aimed at repealing the unifor m pricing as decided by the state liquor board, and other requirements that are required in sales and distribution of hard liquor. In fact, stores that previously had contracts from the state controlled liquor distribution under this initiative might be converted to retail licenses. About 1,428 retail outlets in initiative 1183 would be licensed compared to3, 357 in initiative 1100 (Mercier, 2010). A study carried out by the Office of Financial Management (OFM) has been the impetus to the proponents of this initiative. There are estimations that upon implementing this initiative, the State General Fund revenue would increase from $216 to $253 million, while the local revenues are expected to improve from $186 to $227 million (Mercier, 2010). This report has been used to consolidate proponents to vote for the initiative. In addition the initiative would retain the tax structure and license issuance would be about 17% of all liquor sales and an annual fee of $166 (Corte, 2010). One as pect in states protectionist monopoly is to reduce the overuse of hard liquor among its citizens. This makes the state to control not only the sales but also the consumption of the liquor. There are however, certain contradictions: â€Å"does state monopoly control the patterns and trends in alcohol intake? State protectionism on alcohol consumption might not directly affect the alcohol consumption patterns in the state† (Smith, 2010). For example, California has an average consumption of 2.34 gallons of alcohol per an average person, while Washington has an average of 2.35 gallons of alcohol consumed per an average person, as per the National Institute of Health figures 2007 (Smith (2010). California has a full privatized hard liquor licenses and sales and distribution of other alcoholic drinks. This makes alcohol readily available at groceries and other near points, where consumers may access the alcohol with ease (Smith, 2010). Proponents have a view that there is no diffe rence between alcohol consumed in the two states, meaning that the protectionism in alcohol distribution would not be effective in controlling consumption. â€Å"Washington would be the fifth state in protectionism from the second position after initiative 1183† (Smith, 2010).This argument has been used to challenge the assertion that the use of alcohol would be a menace to good governance (Timberlake,

Contoso Legal Department and Client Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Contoso Legal Department and Client - Term Paper Example An installation of Windows 7 would become an upgrade, as the Windows version was essentially released to upgrade the previous version. Upgrading the existing system would include installation of Windows 7. This upgrade would provide improved functioning of the existing features through the performance improvements included in the new Windows version. These features allow computers to perform numerous functions previously unavailable in the other Microsoft operating systems. Installation of Windows 7 would also include upgrading the server system through the installation of a compatible system in the server. The Windows server 2008 R2 could be identified as the best option for the server. The Microsoft Corporation released this server system as a counterpart for Windows 7 (Microsoft, 2012). These systems function in extreme uniformity once installed together, allowing quick access to company servers from the personal computers. Compatibility of these two systems remains essential in e nabling ad creasing efficiency of the entire system. This server system would significantly improve the capability of the installed operating system to access the company server. This server system becomes essential when using Windows 7 in ensuring proper functionality for the operating system. The system requires hardware configuration similar to those of the preceding versions released. The fundamental aspect of the system remains the capability to allow easy document sharing. The system image could be defined as the capability for a computer system to shut and return to the same state when restarted. This remains one of the essential changes present in the Windows 7 version, integrating the capability to hibernate computers. The new version presents systems with the ability to store information in volatile memories essentially allowing creation of system images. The proposed Windows version comes with the capability to hibernate, therefore, allowing the capability to operate the computers in energy saving modes. This feature remains critical in reducing the energy consumption of the entire company (Pogue, October 21, 2009). The system image feature becomes essential in allowing off-line operating system debugging. The operating system with the capability to create system images, allows the computer to return to operational mode immediately, upon command. This feature could assist the department in minimizing incidents of losing critical data, stored within the departmental computers. The creation of a system image remains a feature available only in this version of Microsoft windows. Windows 7 allows the user to create system images, enabling the mounting of system drives that cannot be modified. The system images allow performing of various actions aimed at recovering system information regarding the operating system. Microsoft Corporation introduced this feature when launching Windows 7, making the operating system the first Microsoft windows with the cap ability to mount system image independently. The inclusion of the system image significantly improves the capability to avail system backup, which could become critical in recovering lost system information. The operating system allows launching of this feature from different media including optical disks. Creating a system image during the first installation could enable the launching of the image from the computer hard disk. The hardware requirements for Windows 7 remain

Worlds Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis Article

Worlds Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis - Article Example The paper "World’s Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis" investigates World’s Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis. The country’s key economic partners, for example, China, are worried about the economic situation in the United States. If the United States would not revise its debt ceiling, the global economy would slow down in terms of growth. This is because the United States is a key consumer of goods produced across the world. It is as well a key supplier of goods. Failure by U.S to review its national debt ceiling would mean that the level of consumption within the economy would go down. In turn, this would adversely affect the economy in terms of the economic growth. Failing to raise the national debt ceiling would lead to the country defaulting on its financial responsibilities i.e. financing the recurrent expenditure. Defaulting would adversely affect the country’s credit rating. This is because of the fact that the risk ass ociated with the government bonds would go up. Therefore, it would be costly for the economy to borrow in the future. There is a direct relationship between risk and the rate of interest. In other words, when the level of risk goes up, so does the rate of interest. This means that it would be costly for the U.S government to borrow in the future, if it will not review the debt ceiling. The country’s is one of the leading across the world in terms of the credit rating. This means that other countries are always willing to lend to U.S.... By raising the debt ceiling the country would be able to meet its short-terms financial obligations i.e. payment of wages to its employees. The country may get back to another financial crisis, if it would not review its current debt ceiling. Critique/ analysis It is important for the United States government to review its national debt ceiling. This is not only important in terms of meeting its financial obligations, but also because of the fact that the level of consumption and government expenditure would go up. According to the Keynesian economists, there is a positive relationship between consumption within an economy and economic growth. Therefore, increasing the limit relating to the level of the national debt would substantially contribute towards the growth of the economy. Both consumption and the government expenditure would go up. Through the multiplying effect an increase in government expenditure or consumption, would result in more than proportionate growth in the level of the gross domestic product. On the other hand, if the government would not review its debt ceiling, consumption and government expenditure would go down, and through a multiplying effect, the GDP would go down by more than proportionate. The article focuses on the short-term solution of the national debt crisis. However, it does not focus on the long-term solutions to the crisis. Although it is important for the government to revise the ceiling, this would only be in the short-run. A long-term solution to the U.S. problem would be important to the country because it would prevent the problem from recurring. One of the long-term solutions would be cutting the budget deficit gradually. In other

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Facebook & Myspace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Facebook & Myspace - Essay Example Both the communities have a somewhat different target audience. As FaceBook was originally offered only to the Harvard Business Students and later they became public therefore an average person on the website is a either a college student or a recently passed college graduate. However MySpace has a much broader audience with a diverse array of users. As far as comparing the essential features of both the websites, MySpace has got a hand over FaceBook in terms of personalization and customization of user profiles. MySpace is potentially flexible as it allows its user to express them in a broader way and users can incorporate a diverse range of colours, personal photos and flash applications to their pages. We know that the most of the revenue generated by these types of web communities is through advertisement therefore it has a profound implication. In the future the businesses would be targeting to individual needs and preferences therefore MySpace would be considered as a better source of partnering and placing your ads. One of the research firm predicted that MySpace will sell $525 million worth of advertising, whereas FaceBook will be able to sell only $125 million (Kirkpatrick, 2007). This financial impact shows that the personalization of content has provided a greater leverage to MySpace. When it comes to customer privacy, FaceBook does ensure maximum security and protects the privacy of the users better than the MySpace. The reason is that the FaceBook was first launched for private community (Harvard Students) therefore it is relatively secure. Whereas MySpace was initially targeted to a much larger group therefore it is open to many and different kind of users. One of the critical issues faced by MySpace is of spamming as the users are inundated with spam and pornographic comments. Every other day you would find that you are being requested by tons of anonymous users. It is socially acceptable to request a random person via

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Beef Hormone Issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Beef Hormone Issue - Essay Example The use of synthetic hormones has been linked to the onset of early puberty along with a link to an increase in breast cancer cells in pubescent girls that lead to higher incidents of breast cancer masticizing. This paper will not only review the history of how synthetic hormones are required to be used in a safe manner according to FDA regulations, but also in discussing the US/EU debate issue in how this issue relays to the general public using bipartisan discussion. Since the European Union's ban on products containing beef hormones is not supported by scientific evidence, is detrimental to the United States cattle industry, and is detrimental to the over all economy of the United States, the United States is right in seeking an end to the ban. According to the USDA government website, this is an ongoing issue over the past fifteen years between the US and the EU (European Union). The disagreement itself is over the use of hormones in cattle came to a head in 1989 when the EU effectively banned any U.S. exports of beef to their country that have been treated with growth promotants. The U.S. has retaliated with scientific studies, evaluations (EU and CODEX conducted) have supported the U.S. position. The disagreement may have some merit with respect to independent testing of the effects that the synthetic hormones on a particular demographic community, mainly the increase in the onset of puberty in prepubescent girls along with an increase in the instances of breast cancer in females. The beef hormone issue is not specifically segregated to an increase in molecular alteration of cancer cells as described above, but, the increase in consumer awareness of the beef farmers using synthetic hormones with their cattle and the need to have labeling included stating the use of synthetic hormones. Hormones The hormones that are naturally occurring in every human are required for normal physiological functioning and maturation and three of these hormones in question, estradiol, progesterone and testosterone, are naturally occurring in all humans and food animals. The other three hormones, trenbolone acetate, zeranol and melengestrol acetate (MGA), have been made into a synthetic version in order to mimic the natural occurring hormone versions.1 Safety Records The FDA has conducted thorough research on the effects of growth hormones used on beef cattle since 1950 and had concluded there was no danger posed to human health and they concluded that there is "essentially no difference between beef from animals raised using hormones and those raised without their use." There is a world wide consensus is that these hormones when used according to approved veterinary practices are very safe and the USDA web site advises that this consensus is reflected in the 1984 and 1987 Lamming Committee reports-- the scientific expert group commissioned by the European Community; the 1987 Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) of the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; the Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Food (CC/RVDF), the Codex

Facebook & Myspace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Facebook & Myspace - Essay Example Both the communities have a somewhat different target audience. As FaceBook was originally offered only to the Harvard Business Students and later they became public therefore an average person on the website is a either a college student or a recently passed college graduate. However MySpace has a much broader audience with a diverse array of users. As far as comparing the essential features of both the websites, MySpace has got a hand over FaceBook in terms of personalization and customization of user profiles. MySpace is potentially flexible as it allows its user to express them in a broader way and users can incorporate a diverse range of colours, personal photos and flash applications to their pages. We know that the most of the revenue generated by these types of web communities is through advertisement therefore it has a profound implication. In the future the businesses would be targeting to individual needs and preferences therefore MySpace would be considered as a better source of partnering and placing your ads. One of the research firm predicted that MySpace will sell $525 million worth of advertising, whereas FaceBook will be able to sell only $125 million (Kirkpatrick, 2007). This financial impact shows that the personalization of content has provided a greater leverage to MySpace. When it comes to customer privacy, FaceBook does ensure maximum security and protects the privacy of the users better than the MySpace. The reason is that the FaceBook was first launched for private community (Harvard Students) therefore it is relatively secure. Whereas MySpace was initially targeted to a much larger group therefore it is open to many and different kind of users. One of the critical issues faced by MySpace is of spamming as the users are inundated with spam and pornographic comments. Every other day you would find that you are being requested by tons of anonymous users. It is socially acceptable to request a random person via

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

The VIctim and Victmizer Essay Example for Free

The VIctim and Victmizer Essay We read five words on the first page of a really good novel and we begin to forget that we are reading printed words on a page; we begin to see images. These were the word spoken by John Gardner and describe exactly what a reader goes through in Millers Death of a Salesman. A victim is the one against whom the act is perpetrated against and the victimizer is the abuser of the crime. Throughout Death of a Salesman, the main character Willy Loman both victimzes his wife and two sons and is also victimized. Linda, who is Willys loyal wife, is victimized by Willy through disrespect. Willy Loman usually has no time for her, he show impatience towards her and responds to her very abruptly. Willy complains when she buys a new type of cheese and throughout the play, he yells at her often when she is mending her stockings. LINDA: Oliver always though the highest of him   WILLY: Will you let me talk?  BIFF: Dont yell at her, pop, will ya?  WILLY (angrily): I was talking, wasnt I?  (Miller, pg. 38)  It is clear that even Biff notices the disrespect of Willy towards his mother and he is hurt by it. In another scene, Biff describes his parents relationship.  BIFF: He always, always wiped the floor with you. Never had an ounce of respect for you.  (Miller, pg. 30) Even so, the disrespect is evident when the story unfolds and the audience is made aware that Willy has been cheating on Linda and giving her stockings to another woman. However much outrage this may cause the audience, the disgusting and appalling behaviour of Willy towards Linda, she too victimizes her husband. Although it is completely clear that she is a well-caring mother and wife, no one can deny that she plays a part in Willys death. Linda finds out about Willys deliberate car crashes and about the ripples in the gas line. She still supports him and pretends she knows nothing about it. She could have stopped Willy and helped him change instead of brushing it under the carpet and being ignorant to what was happening. Through that change, Willys death would have been avoided. She is afraid to hurt Willy and doesnt want him to know that she is aware of his feeble attempts of suicide. She wishes not to let Willy think that he has failed as a father and as a husband and has failed his financial responsibility.  BIFF: Did you have it taken off?  LINDA: Im Im ashamed to. How can I mention it to him? Everyday I go down and take away that little rubber pipe. But when he comes back home, I put it back where it was. How can I insult him that way? I dont know what to do. (Miller, pg. 60)  Furthermore, Willy also victimizes his son Biff and has many flashback memories of his son. Willys feelings towards Biff are very strong and though he has two sons, he seems more inclined towards pleasing Biff. Willy loves Biff and has high expectations for him and at the end of the play, he thinks he has done Biff a favour by committing suicide. When he was young, Willy could find no fault with Biff and does not scold him for cheating or stealing. Once, Willy asks Bernard to give Biff the answers for the test and hence teaches his son immoral behaviour of cheating to get ahead in life. As a result, Biff is victimized because he grows up not knowing the real difference between right and wrong and what is immoral and correct. At the end, when Biff leaves, he goes for a last visit to Willy and tells him that his life as a failure is the fault of Willy. Willy refuses to accept it and accuses him of spite and continues to repeat that he wont accept the blame. Biff replies to his father. BIFF: I never got anywhere because you blew me so full of hot air I could never stand taking orders from anybody! Thats whose fault it is!  (Miller, pg. 131)  He also tells Willy that he and him are nothing and to give up his hopes for him.  BIFF (crying, broken): Will you let me go, for Christs sake? Will you take that phony dream and burn it before something happens?  (Miller, pg. 133)  Even so, Willys victimization led to Biff victimizing Willy. Willy is caught by Biff when he is cheating on his mother and there is another woman with him in the room in Boson. Biff loses the respect for his father and he becomes sour and disillusioned. BIFF: You fake! You phoney little fake! You fake!  (Miller, pg. 121)  So, the attitude that Willy had towards his sons and his disrespectful behaviour and cheating towards his wife lead Biff to victimize him by becoming a failure and losing all respect for his father. He loses hope of ever being what his father dreamed of him being one day.  In comparison, Willys attitude and relationship between Happy is different in that he does not expect very much from him and he doesnt have the high hopes and dreams for him like he does for Biff. His victimization of Happy is when he ignores or giver very little attention to him although Happy tends to be an attention-seeker throughout the play. Willy hardly ever speaks to him and if he does, it is through Biff or related to him somehow. Happy also victimizes Willy by not letting him down about the other woman and he ignored and denies Willy as his father later in the story when they meet at the Chop-House. LEETA: Dont you want to tell your father   HAPPY: No, thats not my father. Hes just a guy.  (Miller, pg. 115)  He also tells lies about it to his mother when he is questioned by her.  He then goes to later lies about it to his mother, Linda, when she rebukes them for deserting him in the restaurant for girls,  LINDA (shouting after Biff): You invite him for dinner. He looks forwards for it all dayand then you desert him there. Theres no stranger youd do that to.  HAPPY: He had a swell time with us. Listen when I desert him, I hope I dont outlive the day!  (Miller, pg. 123) To conclude, Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman is filled with victimizations throughout the play whether they are directly or indirectly targeted. Willy victimizes his wife and his two sons but is also victimized by them throughout the play. But the real tragedy of his victimization is that it leads to more harm than he originally caused and he becomes the biggest victim of it also. In turn, the audience is shocked to see that he turns to victimize those closest to him. To some, he may be deserving of victimization, but others may sympathize with him and say justice has not been served.

Monday, October 14, 2019

Mise-en-scene, Psycho | Analysis

Mise-en-scene, Psycho | Analysis Mise-en-scene, psycho The mise-en-scene, a French term roughly translated as what is put into the scene (put before the camera), refers to all those properties of a cinematic image that exist independently of camera position, camera movement, and editing (although a viewer will see these different dimensions united in one image). Mise-en-scene includes lighting, costumes, sets, the quality of acting, and other shapes and characters in the scene. The Major reason that we tend to overlook or undervalue mise-en-scene in the movies is the powerful illusion of realism that is at the heart of the film medium (Corrigan, Timothy.45). Mise-en-scene usually involves some planning, but the filmaker may be open to unplanned events as well. An actor may add a line on the set, or an unexpected change in lighting may enhance a dramatic effect (Bordwell, David and Thompson, Kristin.156). Setting, costumes, lighting, and staging-these are the components of mise-en-scene. Yet one element seldom appears in isolation. Each usually combines with others to create a specific system in every film- (Bordwell, David.175). Mise-en-scene functions not in only isolated moments, but in relation to the narrative organization of the entire film (Bordwell, David.184). Alfred Hitchcocks Psycho (1960), a suspense horror film is one of the famous film which explores the conventional characteristics of film which are relevant to mise-en-scene. The film is encountered between two characters, Marion Crane (Janet Leigh) a secretary and Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins) the owner of the motel. Psycho starts with a title which is sliced up into halves from the middle, which depicts the split personality of Norman, who has been portrayed as psycho in the movie. The title is a reflection on his character. Psycho starts with showing the city of Phoenix, then the buildings and cars are shown from the top angle and then the camera pans to the window which is half closed , this also reflects the duality and shows that something suspicious is going to happen. Inside the room Marion is shown wearing a white underwear. In the next scene when she steals money from her employer and gets back home, she is then shown wearing a black underwear, which shows the difference b etween purity and evilness, because in white underwear she was shown pure, but after she steals the money, the black underwear signifies that she has done a crime and her sin has replaced her purity, and stealing money also shows an authority , as she got what she wanted and now she has control on things. And when she runs away from her home after stealing money, we see her wearing black dress, bag and shoes. Moreover her car was black as well portraying everything as evil. This beginning scene holds a grip on the audience which makes them stick to the screen. Psychos crucial and important scene is the murder of Marion in the shower, which is known as the Shower Scene. 77 camera angles are featured in this scene, and most of the shots are close ups and extreme close ups. When Marion enters the bathroom, everything is shown completely white, which shows purity, where as Marion is not pure so it signifies that she is taking a shower to clean all of her sins Then the scene starts continuing in different shots and camera angles which shows that something is about to happen, and then there is a silhouette shot of Marion which signifies that things are going to go on a darker side from white. The use of close shots is to make the scene feel longer and more subjective. There are some mediums shots, which are shot before and after the murder, the reason they are not shot between the murder is to show violence and to make the audience feel as they are seeing a murder in reality and while the murder is happening, the audience can feel the helplessne ss of Marion, and that she is in danger and needs help but there is not one to help her, so audience feel like going into the scene and help her out. Hitchcock is famous for using these kind of shots to make the audience go crazy and feel the reality and here comes the suspension of disbelief which makes the scene more interesting for the audience. The murder ends with a medium shot where blood is pouring into the drain of the tub which shows the end of Marions life. One of the other important scene is the parlor scene, when Marion is eating her sandwich the camera is placed on her eye level so the audience could feel that they are sitting with Marion and having a conversation with her, and for Norman the camera is low angled which shows that his life is out of balance, and something wrong is going on, because nobody is comfortable on viewing the world from such a position. Then the props and costume has played an important role in this scene, especially the eagle and other stuffed birds on the wall. This portrays the motel as a mad house, builds up frightening moment of the scene and signifies that something wrong is going to happen. Marions clothes are light in color, and her posture is very relaxed where as Norman is wearing dark clothes which portrays him as dominant, wicked evil man and it also shows that Marion will be soon victimized by the hands of Norman. The use of mise-en-scene in this scene is very effective as it previews what is goi ng happen next in the narrative. There are many things which are used as motif in Psycho with in the mise-en-scene. For example, the use of bathroom in the beginning, then the bathroom is shown twice and then the most important murder scene which also occurs in the bathroom. The use of close up shots of the eyes to show the emotions and the nature of the character that the audience could feel. These eye shots are the key shots of the film and nicely used as motif, and the eye with close up is a perfect way to show the goal for violence act. For example after the murder, when we see the blood draining into the drain of the tub, the drain transforms into the eye of the victim, who is lying dead on the bathroom floor. The shots of mirrors are also repeated couple of times to show the mirror image and the dual personality of the character. Birds have been used as a motif, be it stuffed birds in the parlor or the frames in the motel room, this signifies that Marion who came in the motel, she was not less than a stuffed b ird on wall or a frame, who could not fly back ever again, as she was murdered by the psycho man. Even when Norman was taking her dead body out of the room, the frame falls down, which shows the end of her life. The car was also used a motif, it was Morains death that was calling her into the motel and it was the car that took her into it. Then the use of low angle and high angle shots through out the course of the film as a motif to make audience feel comfortable and uncomfortable in different situations throughout the movie. Further looking towards the lighting in Psycho, Hitchcocks artistry in lighting and mise-en-scene created a world that is submerged with duality. For example, the parlor scene, where there is a small place, and it is occupied with a lot of stuff, just to show an uncomfortable situation between Marion and Norman, and there is only one source of light which is coming from the lamp, which is the key light in that whole frame. The way these characters are lit by only one source of light and the way they are positioned is done so well that their emotions are valid, and the audience can tell whats going on in the characters mind. For example, when Marion is sitting on a chair, on that time her face is very well lit, which doesnt hide her in shadows as she has stolen 40,000 dollars, but the high key lighting on her face shows that she is not on a darker and evil side, it creates softness and shows that shes having an intension of returning the stolen money. Where as Norman is not well lit in this scene, the back and fill lightening is very minimum because of which he is in shadows, which shows his dual personality and that he is hiding something. In the last scene, when Norman is shown in the jail, we see that he is clad in a black blanket portraying him as a villain and wicked facial expressions on his face shows the evilness of his character and that he is not guilty of what he did, infact he was a truly psycho man. The movie ends with the last scene where we see the car carrying Morains dead body emerging out of the water, which has been used as motif throughout the film. Overall, Hitchcock has done an amazing job with Psychos mise-en-scene with the mixture of camera angles, lightening and editing, and the use of these elements from the beginning till end, and the contribution of these all have added sense to the concept, as the use is justifiable and gain audiences interest. Stages of Decomposition: Effect of Time and Temperature Stages of Decomposition: Effect of Time and Temperature Chapter I INTRODUCTION Watson, can you determine cause and time of death? I knelt over the woman and began a cursory examination â€Å"Rigor mortis has set in, so Id estimate shes been dead about 10 to 12 hours. Holmes stood up and brushed himself off with his hands. So, that puts her death between midnight and 2 am†(Anonymous 2007). After the question of cause of death; the question of time of death is the most sought after piece of information associated with a medical death investigation. As a consequence, death investigators find themselves in need of a means of ascertaining the period of time between when an individuals body is found and when they died, sometimes referred to as the post mortem interval. Establishing the time of death through the determination of post mortem interval may have a direct bearing on the legal questions of guilt or innocence by confirming that a suspects alibi covers the period when the victim died, or demonstrating that it does not. If the time of death can be established to within hours, days, months or even years, an individual may be able to prove that they were at some other place at that time. On the other hand, if the suspect is known to have been in the vicinity of the victim during the appropriate time period, then they can be shown to have had an opportunity to commit th e crime. Currently, there are multiple techniques for determining post mortem interval that incorporate methods in almost every discipline of forensic science. Depending on the circumstances, these techniques can yield results that vary from a narrow accurate estimate (video of the victim, the victims stopped watch etc.) to a wide range estimate (counting tree rings on trees growing over or through the remains). Regardless of the of the method used, the calculation of post mortem interval is at best an estimate and should not be accepted as accurate without considering all of the factors that can potentially impact the result. Post Mortem Interval Estimation â€Å"For everything there is a season, And a time for every matter under heaven: A time to be born, and a time to die†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Ecclesiastes 3:1-2 The techniques currently utilized for estimating post mortem interval can be broken down into two broad categories based upon the methodology used. The first of these categories are the concurrence-based methodologies. Concurrence based methods relate or compare the occurrence of a known event, which took place at a known time, with the occurrence of death, which took place at an unknown time. Examples of concurrence-based methods include the determining the years of manufacture of clothing found on a body, tree ring development, dates on personal effects, etc. Concurrence based methods rely on both evidence associated with the body, and anamnestic evidence such as the deceaseds normal pattern of movements. The second grouping of techniques include rate of change methodologies. Rate of change-based methodologies measure some aspect of a evidence, directly associated with the body, that changes at a known or predictable rate and is started or stopped at the time of death. Examples of the rate of change based methods include body temperature, tissue decomposition, insect succession and bone weathering. Some of these methodologies can be considered to fall into both categories. Examples of these would be tree ring development (Coyle, Lee et al. 2005) and insect succession. Previous post mortem interval Estimation Methods The variety of approaches for estimating post mortem interval spring from the varied expertise and experiences of their proponents as such the different methods tend to be focused on the immediate needs of the investigator, and limited to a particular stage of the post mortem interval or type of observation. As a consequence, the period of time for which a procedure is effective will overlap others. Algor, Rigor and Liver Mortis â€Å"Tis after death that we measure men.† James Barron Hope The earliest recorded methods for estimating early post mortem interval were a rate of change methodology based on the most easily observed changes. The cooling of the body after death (algor mortis), the gradual stiffening of the body (rigor mortis) and the fixed pooling of the blood resulting in discoloration of the lower portions of the body (livor mortis) can be easily assessed with minimal or in some instances no instrumentation. Since the time of the ancient Greeks when the following rule of thumb was developed: Warm and not stiff: Not dead more than three hours; Warm and stiff: Dead between 3 and 8 hours; Cold and stiff: Dead between 8 and 36 hours; Cold and not stiff: Dead more than 36 hours; (Starkeby 2004) until modern times, the basis of most temperature based post mortem interval analyses is the assumption that the human body, which averages 98.2 oF +/- 1.3 oF (Mall and Eisenmenger 2005), was at 98.6 oF (Mackowiak, Wasserman et al. 1992) at death and that after death the body looses heat in a predictable manner. There have been many temperature based methods for estimating post mortem interval. As early as the 1800s, Dr. John Davy had developed a method using the fall in body temperature (algor mortis), measured rectally, to determine the post mortem interval (Henssge and Knight 2002). This method was refined by De Saram by recording detailed temperature measurements collected from executed prisoners (De Saram G. 1955). More recent approaches to this technique have included measuring rectal temperature, body surface temperature, ear canal temperature, eye socket temperature and liver temperature (Simonsen, Voigt et al. 1977; Henssge and Knight 1995; Baccino, De Saint Martin et al. 1996; Kanetake, Kanawaku et al. 2006). Improvements to these techniques have included multiple progressive sampling, and the introduction of concepts such as the initial temperature plateau, core temperature, heat gradients, the effects of insulation, the ratio of surface area to volume, the effects of humidity and the effect of conductive surfaces, Microclimates and postmortem skin cooling (Green and Wright 1985; Nokes, Flint et al. 1992; Nelson 2000). However, most methods that attempt to use body temperature changes to determine the post mortem interval are hampered, as most methods are, by individual variability. Even when complex calculations and algorithms have been designed to model for tissue density, initial temperature distribution, post mortem exothermic reactions and heat loss, these refinements have not appreciably narrowed the estimate window for post mortem interval. Multiple studies outlining instances of initial temperature increase of a body soon after death (Hutchins 1985) associated with post mortem chemical changes such as rigor mortis, cell lysis and the conversion of cellular energy production to anaerobic respiration (Nelson 2000); variations in the core body temperature ranging from 0.5 1.2  °C during a 24 hour period (Chisholm 1911; Mackowiak, Wasserman et al. 1992); the effect of variable environmental temperatures (Green and Wright 1985; Green and Wright 1985); and the effect of environmental temperatu re on overall body surface temperatures (Mall, Hubig et al. 2002) have all contributed to limit the usefulness temperature as a consistent indicator of post mortem interval. Additionally, once the body has reached ambient temperature temperature ceases to be a factor. Marshall said it best when he said ‘‘It would seem that the timing of death by means of temperature can never be more than an approximation(Henssge and Knight 1995). Soft and Hard Tissue Decomposition â€Å"Now, a corpse, poor thing, is an untouchable and the process of decay is, of all pieces of bad manners, the vulgarest imaginable†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Aldous Huxley Cadaveric decomposition is a complex process that begins immediately following death and proceeds beyond the time when recognizable human remains have ceased to exist. Decomposition can be broken down into two major stages. The first stage, soft-tissue decomposition, is caused by autolysis and putrefaction. Autolysis is the digestion of tissue by cellular enzymes and digestive processes normally present in the organism. Putrefaction is the digestion of whole tissues systems caused by the enzymatic activity of fungi and bacteria that are either present in the organism or the environment that opportunistically invade the tissue. Both autolysis and the microorganisms responsible for putrefaction are normally held in check in living organisms. However, when an organism dies the cellular and systemic mechanisms responsible for regulating autolysis and inhibiting putrefying microorganisms stop. â€Å"Without these controlling processes the body becomes fancy (bacterial) culture media† (Carayannopoulos 1992). These early postmortem changes in soft tissues can be used to provide an estimate of the post mortem interval from death until skeletonization. However, the rate of soft tissue decomposition can be dramatically affected by both internal and external factors that affect the body (i.e. ambient temperature, cause of death, scavenging, trauma, environmental conditions, clothing, body size, mummification and adipocere formation) (Rodriguez and Bass 1985; Micozzi 1986; Mant 1987; Vass, Bass et al. 1992; Komar 1998; Campobasso, Di Vella et al. 2001). There are reported instances of rapid decomposition associated with acute illness (Frisch 2001) and the author is personally aware of an instance of a post mortem interval of less than eleven days resulting in complete skeletalization of an individual that died of complications related to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (Watson 1994). Additionally, there are a number of examples of bodies remaining intact for year s after death (Bass and Jefferson 2003). Beyond gross observation for assessing decomposition, researchers have developed multiple morphometric and chemical methods for assessing soft tissue decomposition. These have ranged from early (ca.1800s) methods such as the Brouardel method which examined the shift in flammability of putrefaction gases in the early post-mortem interval, and the Westernhoffer-Rocha-Valverde method examining the formation of crystals in the blood formed after the third day of putrefaction (Cengage 2006); to more modern methods such as ultrasound assessments of organ condition (Uchigasaki, Oesterhelweg et al. 2004) and the use of electron microscopy to examine measurable physical changes in mitochondria (Munoz, de Almeida et al. 1999) and platelet count (Thomsen, Kaatsch et al. 1999). Chemical methods used to assess time since death include the assessment of volatile organic compound formation (Vass, Bass et al. 1992; Statheropoulos, Spiliopoulou et al. 2005; Statheropoulos, Agapiou et al. 2007; Dekeir sschieter, Verheggen et al. 2009); the concentrations of non-protein nitrogen (Sasaki, Tsunenari et al. 1983; Gallois-Montbrun, Barres et al. 1988) and creatinine (Gallois-Montbrun, Barres et al. 1988; Brion, Marc et al. 1991). Bony tissue decomposition, the second major stage of decomposition, consists of a combination of surface weathering due to environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, sunlight) and erosion from soil conditions (pH, mineral content, etc.) (Behrensmeyer 1978; Janjua and Rogers 2008). While not much detailed study has been done on the environmental factors that affect bony tissue breakdown, it has been established that environmental factors such as pH, oxygenation, hydrology and soil flora and fauna can affect the long term stability of collagen (Garlick 1969; Henderson 1987; Bell, Skinner et al. 1996). Collagen, the primary protenatious component of bone, slowly hydrolyzes to peptides and then to amino acids leading to the breakdown of the collagen-mineral bonds which weakens the overall bone structure leaving it more susceptible to environmental weathering (Henderson 1987). By examining the effects of related changes (cracking, flaking, vacuole formation, UV-fluorescence of compa ct bone) the investigator can estimate the period of time a bone sample has been exposed to weathering (Yoshino, Kimijima et al. 1991; Bell, Skinner et al. 1996; Janjua and Rogers 2008; Wieberg and Wescott 2008). Current methods of assessing time since death using bone weathering rely heavily upon the experience of the investigator (Knight and Lauder 1969) and are limited to immediately post skeletalization to 10 to 100 years based on environmental conditions (Haglund and Sorg 1997). As with the assessment of soft tissue decomposition for time since death, investigators examining bone decomposition have supplemented observational methods with quantifiable testing techniques that analyze changes that are not directly affected by the physical environment (Lundquist 1963). Radiocarbon dating of carbon-14 and strontium-90 have been used to group remains pre and post 1950 (Taylor, Suchey et al. 1989; Maclaughlin-Black, Herd et al. 1992). Neis suggested that, with further study of strontium-90 distributions, determination of times since death should be possible (Neis, Hille et al. 1999). Bradley suggested that measuring the distribution of 210Pb and 210Po in marrow and calcified bone could prove forensically significant (Bradley 1993). This work was built upon by Swift who evaluated using 210Pb and 210Po distribution in conjunction with trace element analysis to provide a meaningful estimate of the post-mortem interval (Swift 1998; Swift, Lauder et al. 2001). Maclaughl in demonstrated that chemical changes due to environment could measurably affect isotope levels (Maclaughlin-Black, Herd et al. 1992). In addition to radionucleotide studies, investigators have also measured the changes in both organic (amino acids, urea, proteins, DNA) and inorganic compounds (nitrogen, potassium, sulphur, phosphorous) in bone. (Jarvis 1997; Prieto-Castello, Hernandez del Rincon et al. 2007). Stomach Contents/Rate of Digestion â€Å"Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee, and her black attendant Death.† John Milton The presence or absence of food in the stomach is often used as an indicator of post mortem interval. Its use as an indicator of post mortem interval is predicated on the assumption that under normal circumstances, the stomach digests and empties at a predictable rate taking from two to six hours to eliminate a full meal (Jaffe 1989). If a person had eaten a light meal the stomach would empty in about 1.5-2 hours. For a medium-sized meal the stomach would be expected to take about three to four hours to empty. Finally, a large meal would take about four to six hours to exit the stomach. Regardless, it would take from six to eight hours for the initial portion of the meal to reach the large intestine (Hallcox 2007). This information, coupled with reliable ante-mortem information relating to when an individual last ate is used by some pathologists when providing an estimate of the times since death. It is for this reason, among others, that comprehensive autopsies usually include an ex amination of the stomach contents (Batten 1995; Siegel 2006). Although it provides another useful indicator of time since death, there are serious limitations to the assessment of the stomach contents as an accurate indicator of time since death. Its reliance on reliable anamnestic evidence such as eating habits, the extent to which the victim chews their food (Pera, Bucca et al. 2002), the physiological state of the victim (Troncon, Bennett et al. 1994; Jayaram, Bowen et al. 1997; Lipp, Schnedl et al. 1997; Phillips, Salman et al. 1997) and the state of mind of the victim (Jaffe 1989); as well as verifiable antemortem evidence such as what the last meal consisted of (protein vs. fiber vs. fat)(Dubois 1985; Tomlin, Brown et al. 1993), the amount of liquid consumed with the meal, alcohol consumption and the time when it was consumed limits its usefulness to a small number of cases (Jaffe 1989). These factors combined with evidence that digestion can continue after death (Koersve 1951) makes the estimation of post mortem interval using stomach co ntents difficult at best. Insect Succession â€Å"Buzzards gotta eat, same as worms.† Clint Eastwood from the Outlaw Josey Wales Insect colonization of a body begins within hours of death and proceeds until remains cease to be a viable insect food source. Throughout this period, multiple waves of colonization by different insect species, as well as multiple generations of previously established species can exist. Forensic entomologists can use the waves of succession and generation time to estimate the postmortem interval based on the variety and stage of development of the insects, or insect remnants, present on the body (Archer and Elgar 2003). In addition to information regarding time since death, forensic entomology can provide useful information about the conditions to which the body was exposed. Most insects have a preference for specific conditions and habitats when colonizing a body and laying their eggs. Modifications to that optimal habitat can interrupt the expected insect colonization and succession. The presence of insects or insect larva that would typically be found on bodies colonized indoors o r in shade on a body discovered outside in direct sunlight may indicate that the body was moved after death (Sharanowski, Walker et al. 2008). Aquatic insects found on bodies discovered on land could indicate the body was originally in water (Wallace, Merritt et al. 2008; Proctor 2009). Although insect succession varies by season, geographical location and local environmental conditions, it is commonly assumed to follow a predictable sequence within a defined habitat. While there are a multitude of studies that have examined regional succession patterns (Archer and Elgar 2003; Tabor, Brewster et al. 2004; Tabor, Fell et al. 2005; Martinez, Duque et al. 2007; Eberhardt and Elliot 2008; Sharanowski, Walker et al. 2008) these studies use different approaches towards defining habitat and assessing insect succession making cross-comparisons of their data difficult. Also, the majority of these studies do not rigorously address the statistical predictability of a species occurrence making their results of limited use as post mortem interval indicators (Michaud and Moreau 2009). Additionally, beyond the presence or absence of clothing, the majority of the post mortem entomological studies conducted do not examine non-habitat external factors that may affect succession. For example, only a few studies have been conducted that assess the affect of drug ingestion (George, Archer et al. 2009) or the presence of chemicals (bleach, lye, acid etc.) used to cover-up evidence (Charabidze, Bourel et al. 2009) on the insect life cycle. As with other means of assessing time since death, more extensive studies with different insect species and drugs in a wider variety of habitats is necessary. Electrolyte Concentration â€Å"Death is a low chemical trick played on everybody†¦Ã¢â‚¬  J.J. Furnas Cellular activity does not immediately cease when an organism dies. Rather, individual cells will continue to function at varying metabolic rates until the loss of oxygen and metabolic substrates caused by the cessation of blood flow results in hypoxia (low oxygen). As cell metabolism shifts from aerobic to anaerobic, oxidative phosphorylation and ATP generation, the cellular processes keeping autolysis in check, begin to decrease and eventually cease all together. Without energy to maintain osmotic gradients membranes begin to fail. As lysosomal membranes begin to fail the enzymes within are released and begin consuming the cell from the inside out. With autolysis comes a cascade of metabolic chemicals, released ions, originally bound up in various cellular processes begin to diffuse due to the diffusion gradient according to Ficks law into the intracellular spaces (Madea 2005). Forensic researchers have used the presence, absence or effects of inorganic ions such as potassium, phos phorous, calcium, sodium and chloride as a means of estimating time since death (Schleyer and Sellier 1958). In most instances the higher the concentration gradient, the more suitable is the analyte for the estimation of the time since death. When analyzing body fluids for the purposes estimating post mortem interval, early researchers tended to focus their studies on body fluids such as, cerebrospinal fluid, blood and pericardial fluid (Schleyer and Brehmer 1958; Coe 1972; Henssge and Knight 1995; Yadav, Deshpande et al. 2007) with a few others examining other compartmentalized bodily fluids (Madea, Kreuser et al. 2001) and the largest numbers focusing on vitrious humor (Madea, Henssge et al. 1989; Ferslew, Hagardorn et al. 1998; Madea and Rodig 2006; Kumagai, Nakayashiki et al. 2007; Thierauf, Musshoff et al. 2009). Chemical methods used to assess these analytes in blood and spinal fluid as an indicator of post mortem interval have failed to gain general acceptance because, for th e most part, they failed to produce precise, reliable, and rapid results as required by the forensic community (Lundquist 1963). Current chemical methods which have primarily focused on vitreous fluid tend to suffer from the same limitations demonstrated by the fact that with notable exceptions (Pounder 1995) very few statistically rigorous field studies on the reliability and precision of estimating post mortem interval are available in the literature (Coe 1993; Madea 2005). Enzyme Activity As previously discussed, cellular activity does not cease when clinical death occurs. In any circumstances where the cellular metabolism shifts from a homeostatic balanced state to an imbalanced state biochemical changes occur. Changes in the levels and/or activity of enzymes (i.e. cardiac troponin, c-reactive proteins, and G proteins) have long been used as indicators of cellular stress (Li, Greenwood et al. 1996; Katrukha, Bereznikova et al. 1998; Tsokos, Reichelt et al. 2001; Uhlin-Hansen 2001). Assessing similar changes in cellular biochemistry as a function of time since death provides investigators with a wide variety of tissues, testing methods and analytes for consideration. As a consequence, forensic investigators have assessed and suggested enzymes from heart, pancreas, muscle, blood and brain as potentially suitable markers for time since death (Wehner, Wehner et al. 1999; Wehner, Wehner et al. 2001; Kang, Kassam et al. 2003; Jia, Ekman et al. 2007; Poloz and ODay 2009). C omparisons of total proteins analyzed ante and post mortem analyzed using two dimensional gel electrophoresis and Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight have demonstrated changes in metabolic enzymes, (Jia, Ekman et al. 2007; Hunsucker, Solomon et al. 2008). Assessing the changes in enzyme activity provides examiners a means to assess time since death, in many instances long before visible cellular changes. However, in at least a few of these studies results indicate that enzyme degradation during extraction and partial enzyme activity observed with degradation products these markers better suited to qualitative analysis rather than quantitative analysis (Sabucedo and Furton 2003). Muscle/Nerve Excitation Both neurons and myocytes retain the ability to respond to electrical stimulation for at least a short period of time after organism death. (Sugioka, Sawai et al. 1995; Briskey, Kastenchmidt et al. 2002; Sams 2002). The response of nervous and muscle tissue to external electric stimulation has also been investigated and proposed as means to estimate time since death (Kline and Bechtel 1990; Straton, Busuttil et al. 1992). Methods developed to investigate myocyte excitability assess the relative magnitude and duration of the muscle contraction during the application of external stimulation. To assess the contractile response, a combination of observational based assessments (Madea 1990; Jones, James et al. 1995) and measurement based assessments (Henssge, Lunkenheimer et al. 1984; Madea 1992) have been suggested and reported. Similar investigations have examined post mortem excitation of nervous tissue by measuring a variety of neurological reactions to stimuli. These include the alteration of Compound Muscle Action Potential (Nokes, Daniel et al. 1991; Elmas, Baslo et al. 2001; Elmas, Baslo et al. 2002), lengthen of the refractory or non-propagating period immediately following the CMAP (McDowall, Lenihan et al. 1998), the extracellular impedance/resistance (Querido 2000), the chronaxie measurement or the time over which a current double that necessary to produce a contraction is applied before the contraction occurs (Straton, Busuttil et al. 1992) and the changes in the amplitude of the F-wave (the secondary CMAP observed after the initial CMAP) have all been examined, and been suggested as potential indicators of time since death. The results of studies examining the response of excitable tissue to electric stimulation have been consistent in that the stimulation response varies predictably over time. However, suitability for absolute indicators of time since death remains in questions as investigators have reported contradictory results related to the effect of the manner of death on the stimulation response (Madea and Henssge 1990; Elmas, Baslo et al. 2002). RNA Degradation RNA degradation, both antemortem and postmortem, is a complex process that is not well understood. Unlike with DNA degradation, continuous degradation of inducible mRNAs by native ribonucleases is used as a means of translational control. After cell death these ribonucleases, no longer kept in check by the mechanisms of cellular homeostasis, combine with exogenous ribonucleases from bacteria and fungi to begin un-inhibited digestion of all cellular RNA. Investigators have noted extensive variability in RNA degradation rates in different tissues (Bauer 2007). Not surprisingly such variability appears to be related to the antemortem ribonuclease activity of the tissue; with relatively ribonuclease poor tissues such as brain and retina exhibiting greater RNA stability (Johnson, Morgan et al. 1986; Malik, Chen et al. 2003) when compared to ribonucleases rich tissues such as liver, stomach and pancreas (Humphreys-Beher, King et al. 1986; Finger, Mercer et al. 1987; Bauer, Gramlich et al. 2003). Additionally, but also not surprisingly, some constitutively expressed mRNAs have been shown to be more stable, or perhaps simply more prevalent, than inducible mRNAs (Inoue, Kimura et al. 2002). Additionally, while intrabrain mRNA levels are fairly constant, interbrain levels vary considerably (Preece, Virley et al. 2003). As a consequence of these observations, the degradation of RNA (total and/or mRNA) have been suggested as a potential analyte to assess time since death. Researchers examining the effect of post mortem interval on RNA stability have examined a variety of targets (mRNA, both tissue specific and constitutively expressed, and total RNA) with an assortment of methods including Reverse Transcriptase (RT) PCR(Ohshima and Sato 1998; Fleige, Walf et al. 2006; Haller, Kanakapalli et al. 2006; Zhao, Zhu et al. 2006), RNA (cDNA) microarrays (Bahn, Augood et al. 2001; Catts, Catts et al. 2005; Son, Bilke et al. 2005; Popova, Mennerich et al. 2008) and quantitative RT-qPCR (VanGuilder, Vrana et al. 2008). Based on these studies, there are indications that beyond time and temperature, factors such as hypoxia, tissue pH, antemortem physiological conditions (coma, seizure activity and injury) postmortem transcriptional activity and RNA sequence can dramatically affect the stability and measurable levels of RNA (Burke, OMalley et al. 1991; Harrison, Heath et al. 1995; Ohshima and Sato 1998; Catts, Catts et al. 2005; Bauer 2007). When examining the sem inal question regarding time since death and temperature some researchers have reported temperature and time as significant factors affecting mRNA levels (Burke, OMalley et al. 1991), while others have reported the reverse (Harrison, Heath et al. 1995; Preece and Cairns 2003). These contradictory data are not surprising given the changes in the specificity, sensitivity and application of the assays used; however, the ultimate question has not been resolved. What is clear from the research is that RNA degradation (mRNA or total) is a complex process (Preece and Cairns 2003; Preece, Virley et al. 2003; Heinrich, Lutz-Bonengel et al. 2007) effected by multiple factors indicating more study will be required before RNA degradation can be considered a reliable indicator of time since death. DNA Degradation and its Effect on DNA Typing Since the initial application of molecular biology techniques to samples of forensic significance in the latter half of the 1980s, forensic scientists have noted that increased exposure to environmental insults can negatively impact DNA quality. Developmental validation studies performed to evaluate the efficacy of new typing techniques (SWGDAM 2008) have found that environmental variables such as heat, high humidity, direct moisture, fungal/bacterial contamination and ultraviolet light can impact the quantity or quality of the DNA sample making them unsuitable for DNA analysis (McNally, Shaler et al. 1989; Graw, Weisser et al. 2000; Takayama, Nakamura et al. 2003; Bender, Farfan et al. 2004; Schneider, Bender et al. 2004; Niemcunowicz-Janica, Pepinski et al. 2007). During transitions in technology from Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis to Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) based testing, researchers noted that samples too degraded to produce an RFLP pattern could still produce profiles using a variety of PCR based markers that evaluated loci shorter in length (Hochmeister, Budowle et al. 1991). This finding supports the hypothesis that degradation in the forensic setting is (not surprisingly) processive. Additional research found that while the DNA in some samples like cadaveric blood and kidney tissue could degrade to the point where it was no longer suitable for DNA fingerprinting after as little as a week (Ludes, Pfitzinger et al. 1993); other samples such as bone (Hochmeister, Budowle et al. 1991; Frank and Llewellyn 1999) and teeth (Schwartz, Schwartz et al. 1991; Pfeiffer, Huhne et al. 1999) could, under most conditions, provide typeable DNA for months. The fact that DNA degradation has a detrimental effect on larger genetic loci, and affects different tissues at different rates is considered to be of extraordinary forensic significance is evidenced by the numbers of studies that seek to examine, and overcome this effect (42 validation studies specifically mentioning DNA degradation from 1995-2009 in PubMed). This makes perfect sense when the observer considers the impact that degradation can have on selecting suitable samples and evaluating the resultant DNA profiles. However, a number of researchers have looked beyond the simple question of how degradation affects the typing of samples to broader questions such as the mechanisms of postmortem degradation (De Marà ­a and Arruti 2004; Foran 2006) and synthesis (Oehmichen, Frasunek et al. 1988) and how that knowledge can be used to assist in the assessment of time since death. DNA degradation by RFLP: Since Sir Alec Jeffreys first applied Southern blotting (Southern 1975) techniques to the testing of forensically significant samples in 1985 (Jeffreys, Brookfield et al. 1985) DNA analysis has revolutionized forensic science. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism DNA analysis relies on variations in the lengths of DNA fragments generated by enzyme restriction. With restriction fragments ranging from approximately from 2 33 kilobases (Baird, Balazs et al. 1986) successful typing and analysis requires high quality (un-fragmented) DNA. Researchers noted from the outset that in some cases involving older and/or postmortem samples that DNA degradation, tied to the exposures of higher temperatures, resulted in the gradual disappearance of the longer fragments reducing the evidentiary value of older samples (Bar, Kratz